I am really pleased to present a Guest Post from Ed Cope, a specialist researcher in Youth Sport at the University of Berdfordshire in the UK.
Ed's topic is one of perennial interest and importance: children's participation in sport.
Comments and responses to this (and previous) posts are positively encouraged.
In most sport
coaching contexts, children can choose whether or not they wish to participate
in sport. Therefore, it could be assumed that all children who engage in some
form of sport or physical activity do so because they want to. However, not all
children take part in sport for the same reasons. A large body of literature
exists that documents children’s motivations for taking part in sport. This
blog discusses the key findings from the literature that specifically relate to
children’s motivations for participating. Furthermore, a number of
recommendations will be made, which will enable coaches to deliver more
developmentally appropriate coaching practices.
Children engage
in sport for a variety of reasons. From comprehensively reviewing the
literature, five common themes have consistently emerged. Each of these themes
will be briefly discussed in this section.
Perceived competence
Children with a
high perceived competence level are much more likely to participate in sport,
than children with low competency levels. High competency is achieved when children experience a
feeling of success. Alternatively, children’s competency levels decrease when
they experience failure. It is often the case that children perceive competence
against the level of effort they exert. Therefore, if a child is rewarded for
the amount of effort they put in, their competence levels will likely increase.
Fun and enjoyment
Fun
and enjoyment has largely been considered the primary motive for why children
take part in sport. However, there is no one global definition of fun and
enjoyment. According to some researchers, it has been suggested that a number
of sources affect what children perceive to be fun and enjoyable. These sources
can be grouped into three categories; achievement (skill mastery, perceived
competence and physical appearance), social (friendships, social recognition,
adult interaction and team interaction), and intrinsic (excitement and energy,
flow, movement sensations and good times). It is important to understand what
sources affect children’s motivations to participate.
Parents
Parents
have considerable influence over children’s motivation to take part in sport. In particular, parents can influence their children’s perception of
competence through the role they play in their children’s sporting life. The
extent, to which parents become involved in their children’s sport, will either
promote motivation levels, or decrease them. It has been suggested that
over-involved parents who pressure their children to win, have a negative
effect on their motivation. At the same time, under-involved parents who show
little appreciation of children’s efforts will also have a de-motivating impact
on their willingness to maintain participating. It is recommended that parents
show care and support, with an emphasis on effort, teamwork and fun.
Learning new skills
Research
in swimming and athletic contexts suggest that some children take in sport in
order to satisfy their intrinsic motivations of learning new skills. The
reasons stated were that children enjoy learning new skills to make them better
at the sport they participated in, and because of the inherent challenge it
presented. In addition, it has been found that some children also wish to learn
new skills to impress coaches, parents and friends/teammates.
Friends and Peers
Although
not as significant a motivational factor as some of the other sources that have
been discussed, friends and peers do influence children’s motivations to take
part in sport. Children cite friends and peers as motivational influences when
they are given the opportunity to work together, gain social acceptance, and
make friendships. When placed in situations that promote direct competition,
many children become de-motivated.
Key points
- The majority of research, which has studied children’s motivations to participate in sport, has done so from a psychological viewpoint. However, children’s motivations are also influenced by a number of socio-cultural factors (e.g. parents and friends). Considering this, motivation is a context specific phenomenon, as what motivates one child in one context, may not necessarily motivate them in another.
- Most children are intrinsically motivated to take part in sport (i.e. they participate for reasons such as wanting to learn new skills or because they enjoy participating). Coaches must be aware that they are responsible for creating the coaching environment, with this influencing children’s desire to remain intrinsically motivated. Consequently, if children are to remain motivated, the coaching environment must be aligned with the reasons for children wanting to participate.
- Coaches, who use more positive behaviours, over more negative behaviours, have been found to maintain and increase the level of children’s motivation. Coaches should minimize their use of negative behaviours, but also be aware that constant delivery of positive behaviours such as general positive feedback will have an adverse effect on children’s motivation.
- Coaches should look to limit the amount of instruction they give. It has been argued that too much instruction impacts on the ability of children to engage in decision making and problem solving tasks. Instead, an effective coaching strategy is to remain silent for periods of coaching practice, as this allows a coach to observe and reflect on practice. At the same time, it allows children to make their own decisions and work problems out for themselves.
- Coaches must strive to understand the personal motivations of all of the children they are coaching. As has been highlighted, children have many different motivations for participating.
Further
reading
Keegan, R. J., Harwood, C. G., Spray, C. M., &
Lavallee, D. E. (2009). A qualitative investigation exploring the motivational
climate in early-career sports participants: Coach, parent and peer influences
on sport motivation. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10,
361-372
McCarthy, P. J., & Jones, M. V. (2007). A Qualitative
Study of Sport Enjoyment in the Sampling Years. The Sports Psychologist, 21,
400-416
Smoll, F. L., Smith, R. E., Barnett, N. P., &
Everett, J. J. (1993). Enhancement of Children’s Self-Esteem Through Social
Support Training for Youth Sport Coaches. Journal of Applied Psychology,
78 (4), 602-210.
Wall, M., & Côté, J. (2007).
Developmental activities that lead
to dropout and investment in sport. Physical
Education and Sport Pedagogy, 12(1), 77-87.
Weiss, M. R., &
Petlichkoff, L. M. (1989). Children’s Motivation for Participation in and
Withdrawal from Sport: Identifying the Missing Links. Paediatric Exercise Science, 1, 195-211.
Weiss, M. R. (1993).
Children’s Participation in Physical Activity: Are We Having Fun Yet? Paediatric Exercise Science, 5(3),
205-210.
Biography
Ed is currently a full time
PhD student at the University of Bedfordshire. His research interests are
centred around the pedagogical practices that children's sport coaches
employ, and how these impact on children's sporting experiences. Ed
is also a practicing children’s sports coach.
Ed can be contacted by
email: Edward.cope@beds.ac.uk
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